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Intellectual
Property Advising
I am a patent attorney registered with the United States Patent
and Trademark Office. My patent experience encompasses the chemical,
biotechnology, health care, pharmaceutical, mechanical, and computer
industries. I also handle copyright and trademark issues. Additionally,
I am an IP tax expert who can help you reduce your IP tax liabilities.
Prior to starting a private practice , I was general and patent
counsel for a start-up biotechnology company in Maryland where Ie
managed the company’s entire patent portfolio; drafted and
negotiated licensing and confidentiality agreements; and crafted
the formation of a joint venture. Earlier, I was an associate with
two prominent Washington, D.C. area intellectual property firms.
Prior to becoming an attorney, I was a research molecular biologist
with the United States Department of Agriculture and a scientific
and technical advisor in Washington, D.C. to the Honorable Byron
Dorgan, the United States Senator from North Dakota.
I offer big firm service at small prices.
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
PATENTS
What are the different patent types?
Federal law establishes protection for a new invention via a "Utility"
patent and protection for a new ornamental design via a "Design"
patent. Additionally, there is protection for plants. Patentable
inventions can fall into various categories, such as apparatus or
devices for accomplishing some purpose, methods or processes for
accomplishing some purpose, compositions or articles of matter.
Ornamental designs can take various forms, e.g., the design for
the tread of a tire, the design of the graphics on the upper of
a running shoe, the pattern of sterling silver tableware, the shape
of a detergent bottle, etc. Plant patents are limited to non-sexually
reproducing plants that are distinct and new varieties of a plant
other than a tuber propagated plant or a plant found in an uncultivated
state.
How long do patents last?
A utility patent has a fixed term. At present it is 20 years from
the filing date of the patent application for applications filed
after June 8, 1995 or the longer of either 20 years from the application
filing date or 17 years from the patent’s issue date for applications
filed before June 8, 1995. Design patents are granted for a period
of 14 years. Once the patent on an invention or design has expired,
anyone is free to make, use, or sell the invention or design. It
is then said to be in the "public domain." Plant patent
protection lasts 20 years from the date of filing and prohibits
anyone from asexually reproducing, selling, or using the plant so
reproduced.
What are the parts of a patent?
Every patent is based on an application filed in the United States
Patent and Trademark Office (PTO) on behalf of the inventor(s).
The application includes a detailed description of the invention,
the background and objects of the invention, drawings (if appropriate)
showing the invention, a detailed specification of the best mode
and embodiment of the invention, at least one "claim"
and an abstract of the invention. The claim defines the boundaries
of the monopoly provided by the patent, and is perhaps the most
important part of the patent at least as far as the patent owner
is concerned.
What criteria must a patent application meet?
A utility patent application must meet certain criteria before the
Patent Office will issue a patent. The invention must be new, useful
and unobvious. Thus, an invention must be novel: not known or used
in this country or patented or described in a printed publication
anywhere before the applicant invented it. Additionally, there is
a one year time bar where an invention cannot be patented if it
was patented by another or described in a printed publication anywhere
more than one year before the application date, or if the invention
was in public use or on sale in the U.S. for more than one year
before the application date. Finally, the claimed invention must
be sufficiently different from existing technology such that it
would not be obvious to a person of ordinary skill in the art to
which the invention mostly closely is associated with.
What are the inventor’s rights in a patent?
A U.S. patent gives its owner the right to exclude others from making,
using, selling or importing the patented invention in the United
States during the term of the patent. Anyone who does any of those
proscribed acts without permission of the owner is an infringer
- even if the infringer did not copy the patented invention or even
knew about it. Thus, copying is not required to find patent infringement,
but at least one claim the patent must read on at least one claim
of the accused device or process. To read on a device or process
every element found in at least one claim of the patent must be
found in the accused device or process. Even if an element called
for in a claim is not found in the accused device, infringement
may still exist if the accused device includes some element that
is equivalent to the missing element.
COPYRIGHT
What is a copyright?
Copyright protects various types of original works of authorship,
such as literary works (fiction or non-fiction prose, poetry, computer
programs, catalogs and other advertisement text, computer software,
etc.); musical works (instrumentals, songs, advertising jingles,
etc.); dramatic works (plays, operas, skits, etc.), pictorial, graphic,
and sculptural works (photographs, drawings, maps, cartoons, etc.);
motion pictures and other audio-visual works (movies, television
shows, games and other interactive media works, etc.); and sound
recordings (recordings of words, music, or other sounds). A great
deal of the works which appear on the Internet are combinations
of these type of works. Such combined works are commonly referred
to as "multi-media" works.
When does a copyright exist?
Copyright arises automatically when an "original" work
is "fixed in a tangible medium of expression." Originality
means that the author created the work and didn’t copy it
from anything else. Only minimal creativity is required. Novelty,
uniqueness or artistic merit is not required. Moreover, a work can
include some "preexisting" material(s) and still be considered
to be original and hence copyrightable. However, the copyright on
the new work only covers the original material added by the author,
not any of the preexisting material(s). A work is "fixed in
a tangible medium of expression" when made sufficiently stable
to permit it to be perceived, reproduced or otherwise communicated
for a period more than transitory duration. Thus, when the Hypertext
Markup Computer Language used to create an Internet web page, is
recorded on the hard drive of the server, it is fixed, and a copyright
on that web page comes into being. In fact, even placing a work
in a computer’s RAM is considered to be of sufficient duration
to constitute fixing.
Why does a copyright need to be registered?
Any copyright created in the United States can be enforced in court
if there is registration of the copyright claim in the U.S. Copyright
Office. Only the author or the owner of the copyright is permitted
to register the copyright. The registration of the copyright requires
the filing of the appropriate copyright form, a payment of $30.00,
a deposit of one copy of the work, if unpublished, and two copies
of the work, if published, in the Copyright Office. Assuming that
the formalities are met and it appears to the Copyright Office that
the work is copyrightable subject matter, a Certificate of Registration
will be issued to the copyright owner (the "claimant").
What protection does a copy right offer?
Copyright protects against copying the "expression" in
a work, as opposed to the "idea" of the work. "Expression"
is not necessarily limited to the exact words, graphics or computer
code used, but can be some level of abstraction below the mere concept
of the work. Thus, the difference between "expression"
and "idea" may be one of the most difficult concepts in
copyright law to determine, and is particularly dependent upon the
facts of the situation on a case-by-case basis.
What rights does a copyright owner have?
The copyright owner has five exclusive rights in the work. Those
rights are: the right to copy, duplicate, transcribe or imitate
the work in a fixed medium (the "Reproduction" right");
the right to modify the work to create a new work, called a "derivative
work" (the "Modification" right); the right to distribute
copies to the public by sale, rental, lease, or loan (the "Distribution"
right); the right to recite, play, dance, act or show the work at
a public place or to transmit it to the public (the "Public
Performance" right); and the right to show a copy of the work
directly or by means of film, slide, or television image at a public
place or to transmit it to the public (the "Public Display"
right). Anyone who violates any of the exclusive rights of the copyright
owner during the term of the copyright is an infringer.
What is the duration of a copyright?
The (duration) term of a copyright depends upon who created the
work, when it was created, and when it was first publicly distributed
(i.e., "published"). The term for works created after
January 1, 1978 is the life of the author plus seventy years, unless
the work is a "work made for hire." The term of a work
made for hire is either 95 years from first publication or 120 years
from the date of creation, whichever expires first. A work made
for hire is generally deemed to be a work created by an employee
within the scope of his or her employment. The employment relationship
can be found to exist is various circumstances and is largely fact
dependent.
Who owns the copyright?
Generally, the copyright is owned by the person(s) who authored
the work, unless it is a work made for hire. In that case the author
(and owner) of the work is the employer. The copyright law also
includes another form of a work made for hire. This applies to nine
specific types of specially commissioned works, e.g., a contribution
to a collective work, an audio-visual work, a test, etc. Specially
commissioned works will be deemed to be works made for hire and
owned by the commissioning party if there is a written agreement
stating that the work is to be so treated and is signed by the creator
of the work.
How can copyright infringement be avoided?
Securing ownership of the copyright(s) or a license to use a copyrighted
work, will avoid the danger of infringement. Ownership in the copyright
can be accomplished by virtue of a written document, called an "assignment."
This document must be signed by the transferor and can transfer
all or only some of the intellectual property rights in the work.
A license is merely the right to use the copyright and is typically
much more limited than an assignment. A license need not be written,
although it is certainly a good idea to have it memorialized in
a document signed by both parties.
Do you always need a license to use a copyright?
One doesn’t need a license to use a copyrighted work in three
circumstances: (1) if the work is already in the public domain;
(2) if the use is deemed to be "fair use"; or (3) if the
material of the work used is factual or an idea. Works in the public
domain are those works whose copyrights have already expired, or
which have entered the public domain by failure of the copyright
owner to include the required copyright notice. Under the 1909 Copyright
Act copyrights had a term of 28 years, and could be renewed for
another 28 years. After the expiration of the original term (or
the renewal term, if applicable) the copyright expired and the work
entered the public domain. Under the 1976 Copyright Act, and which
is applicable now, the duration of a copyright, as noted above,
is the life of the author plus seventy five years unless the work
is a work made for hire. However, under the 1976 Act, publication
of a work after January 1, 1978 (but prior to March 1, 1989) without
the required copyright notice placed the work in the public domain,
except for some very special circumstances excusing the failure.
The required copyright notice consisted of three elements, ©
, the name of the copyright owner, and the year date of first publication.
Since March 1, 1989 use of a copyright notice is optional, although
still advisable. Thus, a work created after that date is covered
by copyright, even if it doesn’t bear a copyright notice when
published.
What is Fair Use?
Fair use is a defense to copyright infringement and is frequently
found to exist if the use is for critical, comment, news reporting,
teaching, scholarship or research. The determination of whether
the use is fair or not is accomplished on a case-by-case basis,
taking into account the numerous factors. Those factors are: the
purpose and character of the use (courts are more likely to find
the use is fair where it is for non-commercial purposes); the nature
of the copyright work (courts are more likely to find the use is
fair where the copied work is factual); the amount and substantiality
of the work copied (courts are more likely to find the use is fair
where what is used is a small amount, qualitatively, of the protected
work); and the effect on the potential market for the work (courts
are more likely to find the use is fair where the new work doesn’t
substantially reduce, e.g., act as a substitute for, the market
for the copyrighted work).
What are moral rights?
So-called "moral rights" of artists are not protected
by copyright. However, certain works of visual art are protected
federally under the Visual Artists Rights Act (VARA). In particular,
VARA limits modification of certain works of fine arts, e.g., a
single work or no more than 200 consecutively numbered copies, and
the use of the artist's name without permission of the artist. VARA
does not apply to "works made for hire." An action for
a violation of VARA can be brought by the artist, even if the artist
no longer has copyright rights in the work, e.g., the artist has
sold or otherwise transferred his/her rights in the work.
What is the Digital Millennium Copyright Act?
DIGITAL MILLENNIUM COPYRIGHT ACT
• Makes it a crime to circumvent anti-piracy measures built
into most commercial software.
• • Outlaws the manufacture, sale, or distribution of
code-cracking devices used to illegally copy software.
• • Does permit the cracking of copyright protection
devices, however, to conduct encryption research, assess product
interoperability, and test computer security systems.
• • Provides exemptions from anti-circumvention provisions
for nonprofit libraries, archives, and educational institutions
under certain circumstances.
• • In general, limits Internet service providers from
copyright infringement liability for simply transmitting information
over the Internet.
• • Service providers, however, are expected to remove
material from users' web sites that appears to constitute copyright
infringement.
• • Limits liability of nonprofit institutions of higher
education -- when they serve as online service providers and under
certain circumstances -- for copyright infringement by faculty members
or graduate students.
• • Requires that "webcasters" pay licensing
fees to record companies.
• • Requires that the Register of Copyrights, after
consultation with relevant parties, submit to Congress recommendations
regarding how to promote distance education through digital technologies
while "maintaining an appropriate balance between the rights
of copyright owners and the needs of users."
• • States explicitly that "[n]othing in this section
shall affect rights, remedies, limitations, or defenses to copyright
infringement, including fair use..."
TRADEMARK
What is a trademark?
A trademark is any name, symbol, slogan, or logo which is used by
a business to identify the goods provided by it. For example: the
trademark WORD is used by Microsoft Corporation to identify its
word processing software and distinguish that software from other
vendors' word processing software. If services are provided under
a mark, the mark is referred to as a "service mark." A
name for a business, be it corporate or fictitious, is referred
to as a "tradename." A tradename can also function as
a trademark or service mark if it is used on the goods or in connection
with the services provided by the business so that the consuming
public associates that name with the goods or services and not with
the business per se. The law of trademarks and service marks is
essentially the same.
What protection does a trademark offer?
Trademark law is designed to protect the trademark owner's goodwill
and reputation by giving the owner the exclusive right to use the
mark on the type of goods or services for which the owner is using
the mark. If the mark is to be used in interstate commerce or has
been used in interstate commerce, federal trademark protection is
available under the Lanham Act. Many states, including Pennsylvania,
have trademark registration statutes. Moreover, all states protect
unregistered trademarks under the common law.
What can be trademarked?
To be a viable mark it must be capable of distinguishing the owner's
goods or services from the goods or services of others. A mark that
merely describes a class of goods rather than distinguishing the
mark's owner's goods from goods provided by others is not protectable.
Generic terms are ones that define the product/service rather than
the source of origin or sponsorship for the product/service. Generic
terms do not, and cannot, function as a trademark and will not be
protected. Many, if not most, dictionary words by themselves are
generic when applied to the particular product or services to which
they seemingly relate. For instance, words like "soap"
or "napkin" would not qualify as a trademark for soap
or napkins. In addition to words or terms that have always been
generic, there are words or terms that initially functioned as a
trademark but later become generic; usually through continuous improper
use of the mark to define the product rather than the source of
origin. Examples of words that initially were important trademarks
but that subsequently became generic are: aspirin, cellophane and
escalator. At the other end of the spectrum from generic terms are
the so-called "arbitrary" or "fanciful marks."
An arbitrary or fanciful mark is one that has been invented for
the sole purpose of functioning as a trademark without having or
suggesting any relationship with the specific product or service
in connection with which it is used. These tend to be the strongest
and most easily enforceable marks. KODAK and EXXON are examples
of marks that fall into this category. However, such legally outstanding
trademarks may have little marketing value unless heavily promoted.
The great majority of marks fall within the "descriptive"
or "suggestive" category. Marks which are merely descriptive
of a product are not inherently distinctive. They do not inherently
identify a particular source, and cannot be protected unless they
acquire what is known as "secondary meaning." "Secondary
meaning" means that the consuming public associates the mark
with a single supplier, not with the goods or services, and is typically
acquired through a large amount of promotion, advertising, or sale
over a sufficiently long period of time. For instance, the mark
HERSHEY has a strong secondary meaning, although it also is descriptive
in the sense of being a geographic word, i.e., the name of a city.
Suggestive marks are marks that, while having some connection with
a product or service, do not necessarily conjure up what the product
or service is. They require some imagination on the part of the
consumer to draw a connection between the mark and the type of product/service
embodied in the mark. For instance, a mark such as BAN for a deodorant
or CYCLONE for a fence in this class. The significance of the difference
between a descriptive and a suggestive mark is that a suggestive
mark is registrable without the necessity of proving secondary meaning.
Moreover, such a mark can at times be enforced at common law without
a showing of secondary meaning. On the other hand, where a descriptive
mark is involved, it is necessary to show that the mark has acquired
secondary meaning.
What is the common law principle of the first to use a mark?
Under the common law the first user of a mark in a geographic area
acquires trademark/service mark rights in that area. Actual use
of the mark on the goods or in connection with the services provided
is required before any rights are acquired. Common law marks are
enforceable even without registration. In fact, the Lanham Act includes
provisions establishing a federal unfair competition cause of action
that can be used to enforce common law trademark and service mark
rights.
What is a search and do I need to do it myself?
Once a potential trademark/service mark is proposed, it is a common,
and well advised practice, to have a search conducted to determine
the availability of that mark, (i.e., if some other entity is using
that mark on some goods or service). The search can be accomplished
through a commercial trademark search service, such as Thompson
and Thompson, or directly through the records of the relevant state
and federal agencies, or through other sources. Commercial search
services generally offer the most comprehensive searches available
and even include common law searches and registered Internet domain
names. Unfortunately, too many times no search is made, with the
result that the mark selected for subsequent use has previously
been adopted and/or used by another, which could prevent the acquisition
of trademark rights therein and also subject the subsequent user
to a potential suit for infringement. Moreover, even when a search
is made it is frequently too limited in scope to be of any value.
For example, it is a very common practice when a business is started
to have a search made of the corporate and/or fictitious name records
of the state in which the business will operate to see if the proposed
corporate or tradename is available for use in that state. Even
if that name had not been previously registered by another in the
state that does not mean that the use of that name for the business
or as a trademark/service mark for the goods/services of the business
can be used with impunity. In particular, if that name/mark is a
federally registered trademark or common law trademark of another
which has been used in the state, the subsequent user will be exposed
to a suit for trademark/service mark infringement, and could be
enjoined from the continued use of the tradename even though its
use is authorized by the state.
What is a trademark registration?
The most effective trademark protection is obtained by filing a
trademark registration application in the PTO. An application to
register a trademark/service mark can be filed before use, based
on a bona fide intention to use that mark (called an "Intent-To-Use"
application), or after use in interstate commerce (called a "Use"
application). While one can apply to register a mark prior to its
use, no rights in the mark are obtained until there has been actual
use of the mark by the business. This means that for a trademark,
the mark must be applied to the goods or on packaging for the goods
that have been introduced into commerce. For a service mark, use
on advertising or other promotional material in connection with
the provision of the service(s) in commerce will suffice.
Does federal law protect unregistered trademarks?
Federal law also protects unregistered (common law) trademarks,
but such protection is limited to the geographic area in which the
mark is actually being used. State trademark protection under common
law is obtained simply by adopting a trademark and using it in connection
with goods or services. This protection is limited to the geographic
area in which the trademark is actually being used. State statutory
protection is obtained by filing an application with the state trademark
office.
What does “likelihood of confusion” mean?
A trademark that so resembles one already in use as to be likely
to cause confusion or mistake is not registrable or protectable
under federal law. In order to determine if there is a likelihood
of confusion, the PTO (and courts) ask: Would an appreciable number
of the relevant class of consumers be confused as to the source
of origin of the goods/services by the use of the respective marks?
If that class of purchasers would be likely to think that the goods/services
sold under the respective marks came from the same source (or from
different sources that are in some way connected, affiliated or
sponsored), a likelihood of confusion exists, and the mark is not
registrable.
What is trademark infringement?
Any person who uses a mark in connection with goods or services
in a way that is likely to cause confusion is an infringer. The
basic test for infringement is the same as for registrability, i.e.,
a "likelihood of confusion." Moreover, it isn’t
necessary to prove actual confusion, as long as confusion is likely
to occur. Instances of actual confusion are generally considered
strong proof of a likelihood of confusion. Confusing similarity
of the marks doesn't require exact identity. Criteria for determining
likelihood of confusion are the degree of similarity in pronunciation
or sound, appearance, and meaning of the mark, and/or similarity
of the respective goods/services. Intent to infringe is frequently
considered as evidence of a likelihood of confusion.
A trademark owner can obtain an injunction against any confusing
use of the trademarks by another, and can collect damages for such
infringement.
TRADE SECRETS
What are trade secrets?
The law of trade secrets, unlike patents and copyright, is not regulated
by any federal statute, but rather exists under the common and/or
statutory law of the states. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, on
February 19, 2004, finally approved the Uniform Trade Secret Act
(UTSA), which will take effect on April 19, 2004. Unlike the definition
of a trade secret under the prior law, the definition of a trade
secret under the UTSA does not require that information be “used
in one’s business” or that it provide the user “an
opportunity to obtain an advantage over competitors who do not know
or use it.”
How are trade secrets determined?
The USTA defines a trade secret as: “ . . . including a formula,
drawing, pattern, compilation including a customer list, program,
device, method, technique or process that (1) derives independent
economic value, actual or potential, from not being generally known
to, and not being readily ascertainable by proper means by, other
persons who can obtain economic value from its disclosure or use
and (2) is the subject of efforts that are reasonable under the
circumstances to maintain its secrecy.” Thus, the new focus
is on independent economic value of the information, regardless
whether that information actually is being used by the trade secret
claimant, and on taking reasonable steps to maintain its secrecy.
Do I need to register my trade secret?
Trade secrets do not require any registration process for protection.
However, to be protectable it is essential that whatever the trade
secret, its subject matter must not be readily ascertainable by
others, using proper means, and must derive actual or potential
economic value by not being readily ascertainable. That which is
protectable as a trade secret includes substantially anything which
can give an owner an advantage over his or her competitors. For
example, trade secrets have been found in business information,
customer lists, both retail and wholesale, technological information,
such as formulas for a chemical compound, a process of manufacturing,
treating or preserving material, a pattern for a machine or other
device, and computer programs. The fact that a trade secret may
or may not be patentable subject matter does not prevent the information
relating to the trade secret from being protectable as a trade secret
providing it meets the required factors for protection.
What happens when I tell someone about my trade secret?
Trade secret protection can be maintained only for as long as the
trade secret remains secret. This means that as soon as the trade
secret is made known to the public in any way the trade secret is
lost.
How can I keep my employees from stealing my trade secret?
The owner of a trade secret has the right to keep others from misappropriating
and using the trade secret. One cannot stop a competitor from using
what is one’s trade secret if the competitor didn’t
misappropriate it, e.g., if the competitor independently developed
it, reverse-engineered it, etc. Typically one demonstrates misappropriation
by some breach of a duty or of a confidential relationship. That
confidential relationship may arise by contract, e.g., an employee
taking his previous employer’s secret process to a competitor,
a consultant who breaches a confidentiality agreement, etc., or
may arise by operation of law, e.g., industrial espionage, etc.
With regard to the last example, utilizing the Internet to gain
access to another’s computer system as part of industrial
espionage may constitute a trade secret violation, if any trade
secrets or proprietary know-how are taken.
RIGHT TO PRIVACY AND RIGHT OF PUBLICITY
What is the right to privacy and the right of publicity?
There are areas of law that specifically deal with the right of
the individual to control his/her image and reputation, and in that
regard are akin to intellectual property. These are the so-called
"Right To Privacy" and the "Right Of Publicity."
Invasion of either of these rights typically occurs via the unauthorized
use of the image, likeness, name or description of a person in print
or some electronic media, e.g., radio or television. Since the Internet
and its World Wide Web provide an easily accessible medium for conveying
textual and graphic information to a virtually world wide audience,
it is expected that many future claims for invasion of the rights
of privacy and/or publicity will be based on some Internet activity.
The Right To Privacy is the right of an individual to be left alone.
There are four types of recognized invasions of this right. Those
invasions are the so-called torts of "intrusion", "public
disclosure of private facts", "false light", and
"appropriation." Intrusion occurs when the private affairs
and the seclusion of an individual are invaded, either physically
or otherwise, and is redressable if the intrusion would be offensive
to a reasonable person. This tort does not require any publication
of the private affairs of the victim. The tortious invasion of the
Right To Privacy by public disclosure of private facts does, however,
require publication, and is only redressable if the matter publicized
would be offensive to a reasonable person and would not be of legitimate
public interest or concern. Moreover, the publication must be to
more than a few persons. The tortious placing of a person in a "false
light" requires the tortfeasor to publicly place the aggrieved
person in a light that would be offensive to a reasonable person.
To recover for an invasion of this right the individual placed in
the false light must show that the tortfeasor knew that the matter
published was false, or else acted with reckless disregard in publishing
the material placing the person in the false light. Tortious appropriation
constitutes a violation of the right of an individual not to have
his or her name or likeness appropriated by another for commercial
gain.
The Right Of Publicity gives the individual the right to control
his name, face, image or voice for commercial purposes. In short,
it protects an individual's property right in his or her persona.
A violation of this right occurs when an individual’s name,
likeness or identity has been misappropriated by another for commercial
purposes. The victim in such a case is entitled to recover for the
unauthorized economic gain by the tortfeasor.
Many states recognize the Right Of Publicity as a common law cause
of action, while in other states it is statutory. In some states,
the right is personal so that it may only be asserted by the individual
wronged during his/her life. In other states the right is descendable
and can be asserted by the heirs of the wronged individual. In some
states the right is also assignable.
Intellectual Property Links
GENERAL LAW
United States Code
www.law.cornell.edu/uscode
Code of Federal Regulations
www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/cfr-table-search.html
U.S. AGENCIES AND JUDICIARY
U.S. Library of Congress
www.loc.gov
Federal Judiciary Homepage
www.uscourts.gov/allinks.html
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY SPECIFIC
U.S. Patent and Trademark Office
www.uspto.gov
European Patent Office
www.european-patent-office.org
World Intellectual Property Organization
www.wipo.org/eng
Japanese Patent Office
www.jpo.go.jp
United States Copyright Office
lcweb.loc.gov/copyright
United States International Trade Commision
www.usitc.gov
Association of Patent Law Firms
www.aplf.org
American Intellectual Property Association
www.aipla.com
ABA Section of Intellectual Property Law
www.abanet.org/intelprop/home.html
The FPLC Intellectual Property Mall
www.ipmall.fplc.edu
Philadelphia Intellectual Property Law Association
www.pipla.org
International Trademark Association
www.inta.org
Cyberspace and Intellectual Property Law Journals
lawschools.findlaw.com/journals/ip_and_cyberspace.html
Electronic Frontier Foundation
www.eff.org
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